Literature Review of Research related to Performance Appraisal - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4210 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? This chapter served as the foundation for the development of this study. An overview of the extensive historical research related to performance appraisal,as well as the theories of motivation related to performance appraisals is presented. 2.1 Performance Appraisal System 2.1.1 Meaning of performance: There are different views on what performance means. According to Brumbrach (1988, cited in Armstrong, 2000): Performance can be actions as well as their consequences. Behaviours originate from a performer and convert performance from a concept to an act. Not just the instruments for results, behaviours are also outcomes in their own right the product of mental and physical effort applied to tasks and can be judged apart from results. The above definition considers performance to be involving both the actions, in other word behaviours, taken during the process in attempting to achieve goals and outputs obtained as a result from the effort. Following this, Armstrong (2000) emphasizes the need for managers to deal with the potential of employees and accomplishments while managing performance. To determine if performance has been achieved, measures have to be developed to appraise the accomplishments and establish the rate at which it has been accomplished. Above all, performance should be about the decision and action taken with available information at any existing situation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Literature Review of Research related to Performance Appraisal" essay for you Create order 2.1.2 Performance Management System (PMS) Noe et al (2006) define performance management as the process through which managers ensure that employees activities and outputs are congruent with the organisations goals.The concept of performance management has contributed a lot in the development Human Resource Management in recent years. The concept was first coined by Beer and Ruh in 1976. However, it is barely in the mid 1980s that it had been accepted as a distinctive approach. Performance Management is widely being used in organizations so as to obtain the best results by trying to improve performance of the workforce. Goals and standards are being planned well beforehand in order to get satisfied outcomes. 2.1.3 Performance Appraisal System (PAS) Performance appraisal also known as performance review, formally documents the achievements of an individual with regards to set targets. It is a component of PMS. The system has become an essential management tool in todays organizations. Managing employees performance can be said to be as important as any other work that all managers execute during the year. Grote (2002) describes performance appraisal as a formal management tool that helps evaluate the performance quality of an employee. Schneier and Beatty as cited in Patterson (1987) define it as a process which apart from evaluating also identifies and develops human performance. According to Karol (1996) performance appraisal includes a communication event planned between a manager and an employee specifically for the purpose of assessing that employees past job performance and discussing areas for future improvement. 2.1.4 History of PAS The history of performance appraisal is fairly concise. Appraisal really began with the Second World War. It was used to assess results. Dulewicz (1989) says that there is an indispensable human inclination to judge the work of other people as well as ones own work.It can thus be said that appraisal is both unavoidable and universal. Even without the existence of a planned appraisal system, one can have a tendency and find it natural to evaluate the job performance of another easily and subjectively. Performance appraisal was seen in the industry in early 1800. Randell (1994) identified its use in Robert Owens use of silent monitors in the cotton mills of Scotland. The Silent monitors were in terms of blocks of wood with different colours painted on each visible side and it was hung above each employees work station. At the end of the day, the block was turned so that a particular colour, representing a grade of the employees performance, could be seen by everyone. (Weise and Buckley, 1998) Subjective evidence indicates that this practice had a facilitating influence on subsequent behavior. Spriegel(1962) and Weise and Buckley(1998) affirm that by the early 1950s, 61 per cent of organizations regularly used performance appraisals, compared with only 15 per cent immediately after World War II. DeVries et al. (1981) pointed out the primary tool to be the trait-rating system, which focused on past actions, using a standard, numerical scoring system to appraise people on the basis of a previously established set of dimensions. The main tool, used under here was trait rating system. The concept of Management by Objective (MBO) was first proposed by Peter Drucker in 1954. Mcgreror then used it in the appraisal process in the year 1957. He suggested that, employees should be appraised on the basis of short-term goals, rather than traits, which are jointly set by the employee and the manager. Weise and Buckley (1998) affirm that this method was very advantageous as it lead to a transformation of a managers role from being a judge to a helper. It also showed that employees productivity ultimately leads to performance. However, when employees performance was measured on the basis of units, then MBO was ineffective. This lead to new development in the appraisal process and the employees were evaluated on the basis of behaviour based rating. Smith and Kendall (1963) designed the first tool to focus on behaviors and it was the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS). 2.1.5 Modern Appraisal Todays performance appraisal process has evolved into a more planned and formal process. It is used as a means which helps identify and compare employees performances. The appraisals data are frequently being used to review several Human Resources decision. It can determine any need for career developments and trainings. For issues such as raise in salaries, rewards and promotions, employers are more and more making use of the appraisals results. Appraisals have now developed into a regular and intervallic system in organizations, normally carried out at least once a year. When talking about the modern approach to appraisal, the term feedback cannot be ignored. The one-to-one discussion between supervisors and subordinates gives rise to feedback and is referred to as the feedback process. This process can improve communication all through the organization but also it can reinforce employees relationships with their superiors. This is so as the workers have the feeling that they do matter to the organization and that their needs are being taken into consideration. The performance appraisal system has most likely become a future-oriented approach as it aims to improve future performances by considering present problems. 2.1.6 Purposes of PAS The most known purpose of performance appraisal is to improve performance of individuals. Cummings and Shwab (1973) held that performance appraisal has basically two important purposes, from an organizational point of view and these are: 1. The maintenance of organizational control 2. The measurement of the efficiency with which the organizations human resources are being utilized. Still, there are also a variety of other declared purposes for appraisal as per Bratton and Gold (2003) and Bowles and Coates (1993) and some are; improving motivation and morale of the employees, clarifying the expectations and reducing the uncertainty about performance, determining rewards, identifying training and development needs, improving communication, selecting people for promotion, discipline, planning corrective actions and setting targets. Furthermore, Bowles and Coates (1993) conducted a postal survey of 250 West Midland companies in June 1992, where organizations were asked ques tions pertaining to the use of Performance management in the organization. These questions included the apparent purpose of PA in the management of work, its strengths and weaknesses. Through their survey they found out that PA was beneficial in the following ways: PA was favorable in developing the communication between employer and employee It was useful in defining performance expectations It helped identified training needs. Performance appraisal can thus be used as an effective tool to improve employees job performance by identifying strengths and weaknesses, meeting of targeted goals and providing training if needed. 2.1.7 Techniques of PAS There are several commonly used techniques of performance appraisal as reviewed by Oberg (1972). They are as follows: Essay Appraisal, Paired Comparison, Graphic Review Scale, Weighted Checklist, Person to Person Rating, Forced Ranking, Critical Incidents. The above techniques were the traditional ones but the methods most widely used today are: Management by Objectives Employees are requested to put up their own performance objectives. They are then judged through these objectives by verifying whether they were satisfied or not. However, in many cases organizations themselves set their standards and goals even after consulting employees. 360 Degree Feedback 360 Degree Feedback is a process in which employees receive private and anonymous feedback from the people who work around them. Kettley (1997) says that when an individual receives feedback from different sources of the organization, including peers, subordinate staff, customers and themselves, the proce ss is called 360 degree feedback or appraisal. The employee is then assessed using those received feedback 2.1.8 Feedback Feedback about the effectiveness of an individuals behavior has long been recognized as essential for learning and for motivation in performance-oriented organizations. Ilgen et al.(1979) stated that feedback is considered as an important tool in performance appraisalprocess. Feedback can be a useful tool for development, especially if it is specific and behaviorally oriented, as well as both problem-oriented and solution-oriented according to Murphy and Cleveland (1995). One of the basic purposes of formal appraisal process is the provision of clear and performance based feedback to employees. Carroll and Scheiner(1982) affirmed that some organisations use feedback as a development tool,while in some organizations it is used for merit evaluation and compensation adjustment. McEvoy and Buller(1987),Wohlers and Gallagher( 1990) contributed that feedback is very essential for the employees because it forms a baseline for the employees which help them to get a review of their past per formance and chance to improve their skills for the future. Ashford (1986) says that when feedback is considered as a valuable resource, then only the individuals feel motivated to seek it, which helps in reducing uncertainty and provides information relevant to self-evaluations. There is also evidence that performance feedback (if given appropriately) can lead to substantial improvements in future performance (Guzzo et al., 1985; Kopelman, 1986; Landy et al., 1982) Fedor et al. (1989); Ilgen et al. (1979) identified that it is commonly accepted that negative feedback is perceived as less accurate and thus less accepted by recipients than positive feedback.Furthermore, Fedoret al. (1989) found that negative performance appraisal feedback was less accepted and perceived as less accurate than positive performance appraisal feedback. 2.1.9Views Organisations Employees have on P.A.S Evans (1986) asserts that many employees believe that their promotion or salary increments depend mostly on their performance. Employees therefore are in a dilemma and consider this situation as survival of the fittest. They know for a fact that, their performance will only be taken into consideration at the end of the day. So, in order to grow in the company they need to be proactive towards their work. The feedback the employee receives from his superior, may simply describe the level of performance achieved. Hence, it becomes important for the managers to conduct the appraisal technique correctly. Employees can only accept criticism if it is useful and important to them. Managers should therefore know how to give information regarding progress made in performance and how to present criticism as well. Meyer et.al (1965) carried out a study in General Electric Company where certain points relating to performance feedback was highlighted. In this study, 92 employees were appr aised by their managers on two occasions over two weeks. The study was carried out using questionnaires, interviews and observation. The first appraisal highlighted performance and salary while the second one underlined performance and improvement. It was observed that lots of criticisms were pointed out by the managers, which lead to defensive behaviour of the employees. The conclusion of the study was that criticism leads a negative impact on the motivation and performance of the employees. Also feedback sessions designed to improve performance should not at the same time consider salary and promotion issues. Ilgenet. al (1979) add that employees who believe that the appraisal system is under any kind of bias, are most likely to be dissatisfied by their work and can also leave their jobs. On the other hand Murphy and Cleveland highlighted one possible reason for the widespread dissatisfaction with performance appraisal in organization as the systems used by these help neithe r them nor their employees in meeting the desired goals. Landy et al. (1978), Klasson et al. (1980), and Tang and Sarsfield-Baldwin (1996) found evidence that the assignment of raters influences perceptions of fairness and accuracy in performance appraisals and hence about the whole process itself. Nevertheless, according to Jacobs, KafryZedeck (1980) employees perceive PA to give them a proper understanding of their duties and responsibilities towards the organization. Likewise, organization sees it as a tool to assess employees on a common ground and one which helps in salary and promotions decisions, training and development programs. In many circumstances appraisal plans are interpreted by managers as a system that helps an organization to change regular priorities and usual ways of working and in so doing to alter its strategic direction. Hence, in circumstances where change cannot be attained by managerial proclamation, appraisal takes on the character of an engine of change. When managers look at appraisal from this angle they hope that it will bring about a change in strategic direction and organizational behaviour. Researchers have suggested that reaction to performance appraisal is critical to the acceptance and use of a performance appraisal system (Bernardin Beatty, 1984; Cardy Dobbins, 1994; Murphy Cleveland, 1995). Reactions may even contribute to the validity of a system (Ostroff, 1993). Cardy and Dobbins (1994) suggest that with dissatisfaction and feelings of unfairness in process and inequity in evaluations, any performance appraisal system will be doomed to failure (p. 54). Murphy and Cleveland (1995) stated that reaction criteria are almost always relevant, and an unfavorable reaction may doom the carefully constructed appraisal system. 2.1.10Benefits of PAS Possibly the most important benefit of appraisal is that, in the rush and pressure of todays working life, it allows the supervisor and subordinate to have time out for a one-on-one discussion of indispensable work problems that might not otherwise be addressed. Likewise, the existence itself of an appraisal system indicates to employees that the organization is genuinely concerned with their individual performances and advancement. This only can have a positive impact on the employees sense of worth, commitment and belonging. Appraisal offers the rare chance to focus on employment activities and objectives, to spot and correct existing problems and to enhance favorable future performance. Thus the performance of the whole organization is improved. Performance appraisal usually provides employees with acknowledgment for their work efforts, if any and as a result it brings them satisfaction. Actually, there are facts supporting that human beings will even prefer negative re cognition in rather than no recognition at all. During performance appraisals, feedbacks are obtained. These provide vital information on whether training and development needs should be considered. The presence or lack of working skills, for example, can become very obvious. The supervisor and subordinate can thus agree upon any demand for training. As far as the organization is concerned, the overall appraisal results can provide a regular and efficient training needs audit for the organization as a whole. The information obtained from appraisals can also give indication on an organizations recruitment and selection practices. This can be done by screening the performance of recently hired workers. The general quality of the workforce can also be monitored by assessing any improvement or decline performances. Changes if needed in the recruitment strategies can then be considered. 2.1.11Criticisms related to P.A.S There are several problems in the actual performance appraisal primarily due to rater bias. Some supervisors are too lenient and thus have a tendency to rate all employees positively rather than really measuring their performance. Another problem is the central tendency where supervisors position the majority of the employees in the center of the performance scale, even though they deserve a better or worse grade. The halo effect is another error usually made during appraisals. This arises when a supervisors general feeling about an employee influences the overall judgment. Performance appraisal systems are at times criticized for weaknesses in the system design itself. Sometimes they assess the wrong behaviours or consequences, or focus on employees personality instead of on their work performances. Very often standards for appraising employees are not related to the work itself. As a consequence employees may not likely be interested in such a system where performance stand ards are unsuccessful in highlighting important aspects of the jobs. Some organizations founds that PAS is a constant cause of tension, since evaluative and developmental concerns come often into disagreement. It is said that the appraisal can serve only one of them at a time. Also they find it dehumanize and demoralize to pass on judgments which then become source of apprehension and stress to employees. Many researchers such as Derven (1990) expressed doubts about the effectiveness and dependability of the appraisal process. Some found the process to be imperfect in nature. Moreover, Gabris Mitchell found a disturbing bias in the appraisal process called the Matthew Effect. It is said to take place in cases where employees keep on receiving the same evaluation each year. This denotes that there is the belief that if an employee has work well, he or she will continue on that pace. The Matthew Effect advocates that even if employees struggle to do well, their past appraisal reports will discriminate their future progress. Accuracy is important in appraisals. However for raters to appraise employees accurately, they should give unbiased results. Unfortunately accurate ratings are quite impossible as researchers affirm that personal liking, look, former impressions, gender and race will certainly manipulate appraisals, that is, there will always be some kind of biasness. 2.1.12Conclusion about PAS There are various schools of beliefs as to the validity and reliability of performance appraisals. While Derven (1990) doubts about its dependability, Lawrie (1990) finds it to be the most important aspect of organizations. A recent survey concluded that more than fifty per cent of the workforce wishes that their supervisors list the performance objectives much more specifically and clearly. The same survey revealed that 42 per cent of the employees were rather disappointed their organisations performance appraisal system. Many supervisors make the wrong use of appraisal. They use it as a punitive tool rather than helping their subordinates to improve their performance and overcome work problems. According to Shelley Riebel, as in the Detroit News (April 11, 1998) often managers are unsuccessful to explain what they really expect from their employees and fail to well describe the criteria used for assessing their performance. The data obtained during the appraisal proce ss should be wisely used and considered. Still, for performance appraisal to be successful, it is important to carry it out on a regular and consistent basis. This will allow supervisors to follow and review employees work. Raters often make the mistake of emphasizing too much on mistakes committed by the employees. Rather, if ever some problem is spotted by the supervisor, the issue should be discussed with the employee concerned and both should try work on a solution. 2.2 Motivation Performance Appraisal System 2.2.1 Introduction to Motivation Motivation can be defined as the driving force that moves us to pursue a certain goal, or trigger a particular action. It can be considered as the desire within a person causing him or her to act. People generally act for a motive and that is to achieve a specific objective. Two main types of motivation have been noted, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes from the inner self while extrinsic motivation arises when external factors require one to perform something. According to Passer and Smith (2004) the concept motivation refers to a course of action that influences the determination, direction and dynamism of goal-directed behaviour. Similarly, Kreitner and Kinicki (2007) assert that motivation represents psychological practices that stimulate voluntary actions. In the work context, as confirmed by Coetsee (2003), motivation entails the readiness of individuals and groups to put much effort so as to achieve organizational goals. From the above, it can be construed that there exists no single and general definition for motivation. Yet, Boje and Rosile (2004) regard motivation as an authoritarian ideology, a way to manipulate performance and where visions of self-actualisation need gratification. This view might be too negative to consider, but the rise in capitalism has been driven by high concentration motivation programmes which sometimes turn employees into production machines. 2.2.2 Motivation and P.A.S in Organisation Today Motivation can be the key to a successful organization. It is often claimed that the best businesses have the best motivated workers. Well motivated employees are said to be more productive and perform quality work. It remains however one of the most challenged tasks for managers to motivate their staffs as everyone is unique. A supervisor should strive to tie in the companys goals together with the employees individual goals through performance management. Moreover, the whole performance appraisal process and its result can affect an employees motivation. As highlighted by Cummings and Swabs (1973), employees performance is the outcome of the employees motivation to perform. In an organisational context, the performance is appraised by assessing the employees aptitudes and potentials to achieve the set goals. 2.2.3 Theories of Motivation related to P.A.S 2.2.3.1 Edwin Lockes Goal Setting Theory A main element for efficiently coaching employees is by using goal setting. Edwin Locke (1968) introduced the Goal Setting Theory whereby employees get motivated to work for the organisation when they are given specific and pronounced goals to achieve. This theory emphasizes that hard goals produce a higher level of performance than easy goals. Secondly, particular hard goals produce higher level of output and lastly, behavioural intentions lead to choice behaviour. Many, who study the relationship between performance and motivation in organizations, will agree that goal-setting and explanation creates confidence in the workers. By clearly explaining the meaning of the goals, employees will have a clear view on what the organization wants to achieve. Coetsee (2003) affirms that the most performing workers are goal-directed. Set goals allow employees to accomplish organisational vision, aims and strategic objectives. The assumption made here is that when people recognise and unde rstand what is expected from them and how they are to be met, they will be motivated to achieve them within the time-limit. With regard to coaching, goal-setting theory has been used more than any other as a framework to motivate employees to improve their performance. The early work of Maier (1958) and Meyer et al. (1965) emphasized goal setting in the appraisal process. In a study, Latham et al. (1978) found that consistent with the theorys predictions, employee participation in setting the goals resulted in higher performance than assigning them, not because of greater goal commitment, but rather due to high goals being set. According to Dossett et al. (1979), a similar result was observed with Weyerhaeusers word processing employees. Goals and objectives set by the employers and employees should be discussed regularly. Erez (1977) asserted that for difficult goals to result in high performance, sufficient feedback is very important. 2.2.3.2 Behaviour Maintenance Model (BMM) Cummings and Swabs presented the Behaviour Maintenance Model (BMM) to illustrate how people are motivated to perform efficiently in an organisation. This model emphasises on the significance of outcomes in the motivational process. Fig.1: Behavior Maintenance Model This framework shows that goal aspirations results in goal attainment and motivation. When goal attainment is achieved by the employee, it leads to job satisfaction which in turn leads the employee to become motivated. 2.2.3.3 Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory Expectancy theory is an idea that was introduced by Victor Vroom. The theory as explained by KreitnerKinicki (2007) is based on the assumption that people are motivated to act in ways that will be followed by valued and desired outcomes. The theory says that an employee might be motivated when there is a belief that a better performance will result in a good performance appraisal which will help in the realization of personal goals. The theory focuses on motivation as the combination of valence, instrumentality and expectancy. Valence is the value of the alleged result. Instrumentality is the point of view of an individual whether he or she will really obtain what they want. It shows that successful act will eventually lead to the desired result. Expectancy refers to the different level of expectations as well as confidence regarding ones capability. Employees believe that these create a motivational force and this force can be represented by the formula: Motivation = Valence x Exp ectancy The theory focuses on three things: ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Efforts and performance relationship ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Performance and reward relationship ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Rewards and personal goal relationship 2.2.4 Conclusion: Performance Appraisal as Motivator? From the above reviews, it can be seen that no such research has been done to show if performance appraisal really acts as a motivator to employees. Bratton and Gold (2003) and Bowles and Coates (1993) claimed motivation to be one of the purposes of appraisals. It remains unconditional to know whether performance appraisal has a role to play in employees motivation. The research will therefore try to answer the following research questions: Does the Performance Appraisal System affect employees motivation? Does the system affect more a specific category of employees? How do employees perceive the PAS at the MRA? How do employees perceive feedback? Does the level of importance given to the system directly affect the employees motivation? Does the trust put on the appraiser influences the employees motivation?

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The Inexplicable Mystery Into Religion Essay Topics Argumentative Exposed

The Inexplicable Mystery Into Religion Essay Topics Argumentative Exposed Spam mail ought to be outlawed. Deciding on a topic for your paper can be challenging. Cell phones should not ever be used while driving. SATs ought to be eliminated. It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics as you need opposing points you may counter to your own points. You don't need to acquire super technical with legal argumentative essays, but make sure to do your homework on what the present laws about your favorite topic actually say. One of the absolute most ideal domains to carry a research is on unique religions and various beliefs. If you are not sure about which topic to select for your religion paper or you merely lack the motivation to compose an outstanding paper, you should entrust your assignment to our proficient writers. Due to this, many disagree on the way the laws should change (if they ought to change at all) and there are several topics to select from. If you ought to be struggling in writing essays, don't get depressed. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. Moral argumentative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. Writing an argumentative essay about religion can be very complicated, as it's essential to select a suitable topic. The Characteristics of Religion Essay Topics Argumentative Secondly, it's smart to clearly show your completed essay to some mentor in your class who'd be in a position to offer you expert tips. Instructors will decades of experience understand how to help students decide on strong topics that provide several arguments that students may concentrate on writing. Yearly driving tests ought to be mandatory over a particular age. They should be mandatory for the first five years after getting a license. Moreover, the teacher as well will find a good chance to evaluate you critically on your research abilities. Your essay will be nice and interesting only as long as you're interested in the issue. If you'd prefer a personalized essay that's written expertly and that may make it possible for you to find wonderful marks, I will be in a position to help you to. An argumentative essay is a certain sort of academic writing. Inspiration to make your own advertising or media argumentative essay topics isn't tricky to discover. One of the absolute most important tasks, before you begin writing an essay on religion, is choose the best sort of paper. Researching the topic will enable you to find out more about what fascinates you, and should you pick something you truly like, writing the essay will be more enjoyable. Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's essential to at all times be critically considering the world around us. Religion in any portion of the world is an easy tool which is utilized to control the behavior of individuals. Facts, finally, will always win out against how folks are feeling at a specific moment. For students who might not be in a position to grasp the meaning and differences existing among them both, we advise that they need to access our library which has a dense selection of science and religion essay topics they can choose. Inside this regard, students may request experts to offer new suggestions and suggestions to refine their traditional beliefs. Other than that, the research should depend on other work dedicated to precisely the same matter. Next, make certain that there is some present research on this issue and that you won't experience challenges gathering information.

Personal Health Assessment - 3441 Words

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Critical Review for a Research Article Based Free Essays

INTRODUCTION English language is the main international English. It is also said that English is the language of progress and development. In this age of internet and globalization, the use of English has increase tremendously. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Review for a Research Article Based or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most of the non-speaking English countries take great importance in English education. China and Malaysia being one of them. Ministry of Education (MOE) in Malaysia has been trying for years to improve the standard of English language especially in communication and writing by implementing efforts such as research on methods that could be applicable in Malaysian schools. English language has been accorded for second language in Malaysia as stated on Article 152 and been given due attention for years. Teaching English can be declared as challenge in Malaysia because the subject has always been argued, doubted, changed for many times that the issues has never been completely resolved. Meanwhile, MOE keep trying to improvise the teaching and learning process in schools from early education to the highest level by employing suitable means and aids such as bringing in modern teaching methods from Western countries. Communicative teaching methods and grammar-translation has been discussed, implemented on English language teaching in China based on the article by Jin, Singh, and Li (2005). This paper will provide the critical review of it, and the relevance of the methods in Malaysian Schools. 2. 0 COMPARISON BETWEEN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING AND GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION Based on the article by Jin, Singh and Li (2005) the CLT and Grammar-Translation method might not be applicable to all teaching situation. While the final result of the study was in favour of CLT methods, the gaps between the results on test paper for two groups are low. Futhermore, the research done by Rao (2002) concluded that students claim that using Grammar-translation method will be more suitable for class session in China. Since teaching is deeply rooted in the local philosophy, culture, and basic concepts of education, the students’ learning styles and habits in language acquisition must be considered. Although the grammar-translation method is out of favor, students accustomed to this method may still derive benefit from it. Feature Article  Country School  Allen Curnow For example, Chinese students generally show great interest in language structures and linguistic details when they are learning a language. â€Å"We would like to know what happens, because if we understand the system, we can use English more effectively† (Harvey 1985). Therefore, in teaching English to Chinese students, appropriate grammar analysis is essential, especially for beginners. Limited utilization of translation from or to the target language is an indispensable part of teaching. Vocabulary work and pattern drills are also ways of familiarizing the student with sentence structures. This information helps learners acquire linguistic competence. The main features of GT are: 1. It is teacher centred and does not cater for the learner’s individual needs 2. The emphasis is on grammar learning through verb drills, the translation of written texts and the memorization of wordlists 3. The focus is on the product rather than the process of learning; 4. Language is viewed as a body of knowledge rather than an instrument for communicating and functioning effectively in the real world 5. Linguistic practice is confined to the memorization of words and rules 6. Instruction aims at the mastery of the written medium rather than oral communication 7. Accuracy rules over fluency 8. Correction is all-out and punitive 9. The L2-model adopted is elitist and so is the educational philosophy 10. Feedback on learner performance is not likely to be helpful as it is solely accuracy-based But instead of teaching grammar traditionally and drilling grammar patterns, teachers need to relate teaching grammar and pattern drills to meaning and use. In other words, language structure practice should be used in contexts that involve some basic principles of appropriateness. This is the exact area that the traditional ESL teaching has long overlooked—teaching English for a communicative purpose. Thus, English teaching should be partly communicatively oriented, so students can acquaint themselves with appropriate language usage. the main pedagogical principles advocated by CLT are: 1. It is pupil-centred rather than teacher-centred 2 The emphasis is on communication and effective interactional skills 3. The focus is on the process rather than the product of learning; 4. Language is viewed as a skill to learn rather than a body of language  to pass on to the pupil 5. Linguistic practice occurs through communicative activities 6. Instruction aims at the mastery of all of the four core language skills 7. Fluency rules over accuracy 8. Correction is selective and non-judgmental 9. The L2-model adopted is flexible and can deviate from the L2-standard Form 3. 0 RELEVANCE TO MALAYSIAN SCHOOLS. In Malaysia, the teaching of English language starts early, as early as in kindergarten between the ages of 4 to 5. Students were exposed to many kinds of teaching methods from the traditional approach such as grammar-translation and towards more modern one like CLT. It is common for teachers to support the one that is more effective and theoretically sound basis for teaching. After independence, the changes was made for education in Malaysia where instead of using English language in school, the medium of teaching and learning process changes to Malay. Thus, affecting the teaching methods in Malaysia where teachers will provide materials and lecturers to students and teacher-centred classroom were practiced. Malaysia introduced the communicative syllabus in 1970. Back then, the study of grammar was considered not ‘fashionable’ and out of date. Students were not taught how to build correct sentences in English. Too much emphasis was placed on spoken English. Role-play and how to respond to given situations took centre stage. CLT method is one of the famous methods used by teachers and claimed to be more effective rather than GT. Krashen and other SLA theorist stress that language learning comes about through learning language communication rather than through practicing. Johnson (1984) and Littlewood (1984) consider that the acquisition of communication competence in a language is an example of skill development. On the other hand, the draw backs from this method are the need of an authentic materials and interaction between learners with them using only the target language as means of communication. Comparing to schools in urban area, most of the schools in rural area lacks the means of these authentic materials and ready interaction from outside. Malaysian people used Malay, Chinese, and Indian to communicate especially in rural area where English has not been used at all. This in turn will affect the communication grasp of students in rural schools where the proficiency in English are low. Thus, in turn, students will refuse to join in the interaction by being silent and it will hinder the teaching and learning process as they cannot catch up to the class lesson. The students in rural school still depend on teacher translation as their lack of exposition to English language will lower their proficiency. They could not speak the language fluently and need to learn the language structures and understand it from basic and practice by their own. It is different for students enrol in urban area where they were pre-disposed to the languages already. Most of them start to learn English from child where their cultural environment and socio-economy were contrasting from students from rural schools. They might have help with their parents and family and the more modern school system in the city. Technologies were blooming in this area where the students’ proficiency is slightly higher. Because they might be aware of the language and have practice them, communicative approach can be adapted to their teaching and learning process. But even so, teachers claimed that practising CLT method in class will take too much time and works as it require complete involvement from all students because of its learner-centred style. Because of this, the lack of practice will somehow affect the learning of the grammar structure and glaring mistakes from students for writing will form as CLT method is divulging more into developing students’ communicative approach. Yes, their speaking skill will be better as will their listening skill but that will not promise them 100% correctness in spelling and grammatical uses. The solutions to this are that both students should try to adapt both methods in learning a second language in Malaysia. The students need to be taught on how to learn not only of the language but to practice the language as frequently as possible. The CLT method can help the students develop an insight into the language and prepare them into an environment where the language are the only one use to communicate. On the other hand, grammar-translation will help the students practice the language on their own where there is no exposition of the language around them. Teachers can provide materials for these students to facilitate or encourage them to learn it independently without being too dependent on teacher. CONCLUSION Various efforts, on both national and individual levels, have been poured into the strategies to improve students’ ability or command of English language. There are of course many methods in second language teaching which include the Grammar Translation Approach. This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin and later modern languages. Experienced teachers said that if they did not engage the help of the mother tongue, the lesson would involve a lot more time and resulting in students that were indifferent and psychologically were not there. ESL teaching in Malaysia, with its traditional setting, is markedly different from that in the United States and Great Britain in that it is conducted in different social and cultural contexts. Yet this does not mean that the communicative approach is not applicable in such a context. By practicing CLT alone, it might be hard for teachers to attract students to participate and thus wasting time in trying to facilitate them. So, as to make this approach work well in here, we must reconcile it with the traditional grammar-translation method that is still popularly used in Malaysia. REFERENCES 1- Lingjie Jin, Michael Singh, Liqun Li; Communicative Language Teaching In China: Misconceptions, Applications And Perceptions. (2005) Australian Association For Research In Education. 2- Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin, Norsimah Mat Awal, Kesumawati Abu Bakar; The Mastery Of English Language Among Lower Secondary School Students In Malaysia: A Linguistic Analysis, European Journal Of Social Sciences – volume 7, number 2, 2008. – Mohd. Faisal Hanapiah (1993); English Language And The Language Of Development: A Malaysian Perspective. Department Of Modern Language, Jurnal Kemanusian. Page 106-120. 4- Rao Zhenhui; Modern Vs. Traditional, Bureau Of Educational And Cultural Affairs, Office Of English Language Programs. Taken on Oct 2012 from http://eca. state. gov. 5- Hyacinth Gaudart; English Language Teaching In Malaysia: A Historical Account, The English Teacher  Vol Xvi December 1987. 6- Kesumawati Abu Bakar, Nor Zakiah Abdul Hamid, Dr. Norsimah Mat Awal, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin; First Language Influence On Second Language Performance: A Study Of Common English Grammatical Errors Among Rural Secondary School Students. Taken on oct 2012 from http://repo. uum. edu. my. 7- Prof Puan Sri Dr Rohaty; (June 28, 2009) Teaching English by Using Bahasa Malaysia, Taken On Oct 2012 from http://rohaty-education. blogspot. com. 8- Dr Gianfranco Conti,(2011) Grammar Translation And Communicative Language Teaching Compared, taken on oct 2012 from http://languageteachingbyconti. blogspot. com How to cite Critical Review for a Research Article Based, Essays

Goods Dominated Logic in Marketing free essay sample

Although when this logic is extended into services it results in reducing service offerings into man hours, information and other ‘exchangeable’ units. Whereas recently, literature has proposed the concept of a Service Dominated (SD) logic where the customer and the firm are involved in co-creating value-in-use, rather than value-in-exchange, within a service system (Vargo et al 2008). In this SD logic Vargo amp; Lausch (2004) suggest that a business’ offering of a value is merely a proposition for the customer to realise at point of use, and until this point what is being offered is only potentially valuable described in FP7 of the 10 â€Å"Foundational Premises† offered by Vargo and Lausch (2008). They do this by reaching into a pre-industrial past to find a more holistic marketing logic suited to the more open, dynamic and global markets than the control-orientated resource allocation model most commonly represented as the 4P’s (Ballantyne amp; Varey 2008). And it has been suggested that, through this SD logic, marketing literature has seen a paradigm shift as more attention is being paid to the intangible resources of a firm due to the impact they have on the co-creation of value between suppliers and customers, rather than simply exchanging their good or service for a pre-determined price as even Kotler (1977) notes that the â€Å"importance of physical products lies not so much in owning them as in obtaining the services they render†. Instead it is now believed the strategic role of the supplier is to support the customer’s value creating purposes with both service activities and goods that render service (Gummesson 1993). One of the main differences between GD and SD logic is their retrospective way of handling resources, especially that of Human Resources. In light of this it is evident that SD logic places much greater importance on different areas of the business strategy, such as relational marketing where GD focuses on transactional. And through effective managing of models such as â€Å"The Six Markets† model (Christopher et al 2002), firms can effectively use Relationship Marketing to emphasise the relationships between the organisation and all of its stakeholders in each of the six â€Å"markets†. And therefore can more effectively assist in instilling the SD logic of co-creation in the organisation as a â€Å"holistic approach to the value-creating space without the boundary constraints of ‘product’ and ‘service’† (Ng and Briscoe 2011). And linked closely with this is an intangible resource that is also seen to have a high level of importance with the SD logic, that of Internal Marketing, due to the importance of human interaction within aspects such as value creation. Internal Marketing is a concept first proposed by Berry, Hansel and Burke (1976) and was originally developed within Service Marketing as more of a philosophy that, since employees play a large part in how a company is perceived, due to their interaction with customers, the employees’ needs should also be satisfied, viewing them as â€Å"internal customers† (Berry 1981). Then in turn, as employees are more positive in their work, they are in a better position to satisfy the â€Å"external customers† as demonstrated by the Service Marketing Triangle (King and Grace 2006). An example of this in practice can be seen through the Swedish firm, The Ericsson Group, who in 1983 installed their Internal Marketing ‘Ericsson Quality’ program with the main justifications behind it being that â€Å"quality was to become the most important weapon in marketing warfare† (Gummesson 1987). And this could be argued in line with the general SD logic in which quality takes even more credence than GD logic as, with the equal role of consumers in value creation, a stronger service will need to be provided in order to successfully market. And the results of the EQ program can be seen to support this as, with the company instilling IM techniques such as job rotation by allowing all employees to take part in training programs, productivity rose by 40% whilst â€Å"error points† fell from 100 to 30 as mployees were more motivated to undertake different tasks and this focus on quality led to higher customer satisfaction and therefore a higher co-created value, as the true value of the offering is only realised in consumption (Ballantyne amp; Varey 2008). And so in conclusion while Goods-Dominated logic creates a distinct separation between producer and consumer until the point of exchange (Vargo et al 2008). In G-D logic the customer was considered as an ‘operand’ resource that must be acted upon to be useful and was considered to be passive and outside of the value creation process. Information had to be targeted towards the customer as they were unknowledgeable but could be encouraged to purchase and â€Å"consume† the firm’s output or production. Thus, he was the â€Å"destroyer† of value. Whereas in contrast to that, the consumer plays an active, if not equally central, role in S-D logic and is a key part of the value creation process. He is now considered as ‘operant’ resource that is capable of acting and producing effects in other resources. As FP6 states, â€Å"the customer is always a co-creator of value† (Vargo amp; Lusch, 2008a). Not only consumers but also supply chain partners are viewed as endogenous to value creation and as a source of expertise and knowledge from which the enterprise could and should benefit (Lusch amp; Vargo, 2009). In fact, according to FP4, operant resources that serve with their knowledge and expertise are the fundamental source of competitive advantage. Although it must also be considered that if customers can be considered co-creators of value, then due to factors such as misinterpreting information available to them, they also have the potential to be ‘co-destroyers’ (Ple and Chumpitaz 2009). Part 2 Introduction As the worlds largest manufacturer and distributor of non-alcoholic beverages, Coca-Cola is certainly no stranger to global marketing, as this report will review. Established in the US, Coca-Cola initiated its global expansion in 1919 and now markets to more than 200 countries worldwide. It is one of the most recognizable brands on the planet and also owns an ever increasing portfolio of other soft drink brands including Schweppes, Oasis, 5 alive, Kea Oar, Fanta, Lilt, Dr Pepper, Sprite and Powerade. Despite this, Coca-Cola still battles fierce competition, especially from their main rivals PepsiCo. Standardisation vs Adaption strategies While supporters of adaption stress the cultural differences that exist between nations and so urge that international companies such as Coca Cola must take these into account (Nielsen 1964). Supporters of standardisation focus on consumer similarities, proposing consumers will be satisfied with similar products (Levitt 1983). Levitt goes on to argue that the adaption philosophy has mainly been an outcome of the lack of vision on the part of multinational firms, and for that reason the multinational corporation is designed to disappear and being replaced by a truly â€Å"global corporation† (Rau and Preble 1987). And, as a result, Porter (1984) recognises two distinct strategic options for multinational companies – a global strategy and a country-centered strategy. Reviewing this, the likely best option for Coca-Cola would be a continuation of their standardised approach, as the Coca-Cola brand is known for its universal global image, although to maintain a geocentric ideology so that the company can maintain this universal whilst being able to react and adapt if necessary, such as their soy alternatives in Asian markets. And this â€Å"Think globally, act locally† is already evident in much of Coca-Cola’s global activity, such as its â€Å"Live on the Coke side of Life† adverts in 2006, which varied slightly in some countries to include elements of local culture. And by using this standardisation of the marketing mix when available for the entire global market, the company is able to benefit massively from economies of scale of production and marketing for the â€Å"mobile consumer† (Levitt 1983) and also offers a coordination of activities as well (Mintzberg 1990). New Product Development NPD is the process by which a new product idea is conceived, developed and ultimately brought into the market. New product introduction in today’s technology-driven markets carries significant risk and failure rates can be s low as one out of every three products (Antil, 1988). Yet, without the introduction of new products, deterioration of a firm’s market position is inevitable, as without new products, firms will inevitably stagnate and fall behind to competitors, reiterated by Kotler who states that failure to respond to competitive new product introductions with appropriate speed can result in late market entry, a permanent loss of market share and dissipated profits (Kotler, 1988). So a company such as Coca-Cola is constantly coming up with new innovations in order to maintain its market dominance, with the company’s innovation centre in Brussels, one of many centres globally, constituting 40% of Coca-Cola’s business operations and producing 500 innovations a year (Hei. eas. ee). With innovations in the works including â€Å"on-the-go† (re-sealable) drinks cans, coffee and the POP-cooler Coca-Cola is able to maintain its competitive advantage. Although due to the risk associated with such product developments the company must maintain a definitive idea of its strengths and weaknesses, generally created through a SWOT analysis. Strengths * Popularity * Brand Awareness/Recognisability * Customer Loyalty * Strong Financially| Weaknesses * Un-healthy * Element of ‘taken for granted’| Threats * Constantly emerging health conscious society * Competition (PepsiCo)| Opportunities * Economies of Scale * Edible products – confectionary etc| And by constructing such an analysis the decision makers at Coca Cola would be able to ascertain what areas they should be cautious of and where they can find opportunities to further advance and strengthen the brand. One such idea on the basis of this table could be to try and tackle the health issue that seems to be one of the few factors working against the brand, and a factor that if left untended can weaken the strongest of companies. Therefore, due to the fact that Coca Cola could not realistically make a ‘healthy’ product due to the ingredients needed to make â€Å"That Great Coke Taste†, one possible NPD could be to finally move into the confectionary market, and create and energy bar i. e ‘Cocalate Bar’. In doing this the company could simultaneously run a ‘Get Healthy’ initiative promoting the new product as well as reducing the pressure from health organisations on the firm. Channel amp; Sales Management Strategies Channel Management process by which a producer or supplier directs marketing activity by involving motivating parties comprising its channel of distribution. And, if successfully done, the company will find a solid compromise between what is ideal from the customers’ point of view and what is practical for the company to use. Therefore choosing the right channel of distribution depends on a variety of issues, such as whether to sell directly to retailers or through distributors, the current and future selling environment and the product limitations to name but a few. In order to ascertain what these issues will be, the company needs to formulate an idea of what the consumer will want, and so in terms of Coca Cola, it would be expected that the average consumer would want to buy the product locally and in person, rather than having to travel or order over the phone due to the simplicity and convenience style of the good. And so, due to the size of the market and the geographical limitations as a result, the Coca Cola Company would clearly need to move their product through a number of distributors, meaning that Channel members would need to be added. And by doing this the firm would create greater efficiency in making their goods available to the consumer, and also benefit from the experience, specialisation and customer service offered by the channel member highlighting how â€Å"supplier relationships are considered as assets in the strategic planning of the company† (Johnson 1999). Ethical amp; Social Issues More than ever firms are being held to strict guidelines and expectations to produce excellent goods of or services and to maintain a good relationship with society and the environment. Consumers expect organisations to act legally and ethically, and any failure to act socially responsible can have serious repercussions for any firm, as all business are perceptive to a social windfall due to the level of communications in today’s society maning that information travels faster than ever before. Social Marketing is â€Å"The application of marketing principles and practices to help with the resolving of health and social problems. This involves the use of marketing †¦ to change public behaviour and practices considered to be harmful to health and societal well-being. † (West, Ford and Ibrahim, 2010). As a result of such social marketing campaigns companies that do not live up to their Corporate Social Responsibility can be targeted to disastrous effects such as Coca Cola’s Belgium crisis in 1999 when School children reported feeling ill after they drank Coca-Cola (Taylor 2000). Obviously a corporate nightmare leading to the replacing of the CEO due to his â€Å"arrogance† in dealing with the dilemma as any damage to a company’s brand image can be catastrophic and impossible to regain. Therefore modern businesses must create and maintain a strong corporate ethicality, as a poor one can undermine the ethicality of the business leading to the public possibly perceiving their operations as corrupt or wrong. In order to create this corporate ethicality the company would need to generate effective ethical guidelines and/or corporate codes that can be effective at all levels. When reviewing Coca Cola it is evident that the company has learned since disasters, such as Belgium ’99, by ensuring this ethicality through avenues such as an Ethics and Compliance Committee, a cross-functional senior management team that oversees all ethics and  compliance programs  and determines Code violations and discipline whilst also ensuring that associates worldwide receive a variety of ethics and compliance training  courses  administered by the office. (Coca Cola Company). Control amp; Evaluation Methods Marketing Metrics are measurements that can be used to measure a company’s performance so that they can assess exactly where they are in relation to a wide variety of aspects. Performance measurement has been a major concern in marketing and remains a vital issue in many companies, supporting the research  priorities  established by the Marketing Science Institute (MSI) during last decade. The term â€Å"performance† is widely used in all areas of management. In virtually all disciplines we use metrics to explain phenomena, diagnose causes, find relationships, make predictions, and allow comparisons. Ford and Schellenberg (1982)  identify three conceptual approaches for defining organizational performance. The first is the objectives approach, assuming organizations pursue the achievement of defined goals. The second is the resource systems approach, enhancing the relationships between the organization and its environment in terms of the ability to secure scarce and relevant resources. The third is the process approach, defining performance in a way that stresses the behavior of its components. In terms of Coca Cola, the soft drinks multinational will be concerned with metrics primarily concerned with factors affecting its growth, capital invested and future predictions due to it already being well established and so looking to maintain its dominance, and so would be following the objectives approach. Therefore metrics such as ‘return on marketing investment’ would be used, and so give a clear indication of how successful the company’s marketing has been and so realise if it there needed to be any altering to their current style. Conclusion Therefore, in conclusion, it is evident that Coca Cola is one of the foremost brands in the world for a reason. I believe the company has adopted the correct approach for global marketing by maintaining a predominantly standardised approach, meaning that they benefit from a global recognition, massive economies of scale and easier coordination of their activities, but with a readiness for adaption Coca Cola is able to react quickly and efficiently to any problems that may arise as result of culture differences, and despite Levitt stating that adaption is a poor choice as it gives way to a â€Å"Global Corporation† (Levitt 1983), this seems another benefit as it allows for the ‘glocalization’ of the brand. Furthermore, with the scope that Coca Cola has for New Product Development as well as the channel distributions available to it, there is countless opportunities for the brand to penetrate new markets, build on existing ones and so further cement its place as the dominant drinks brand. And lastly, despite slip-ups, such as the Belgian contaminated drinks, which ultimately businesses should expect and be able to handle effectively, the continuing focus on the level of corporate ethicality and upholding Coca Cola’s Corporate Social Responsibility through developments such as the Ethics and Compliance Committee highlights the MNC’s commitment to maintaining a solid relationship with society through efficient Social Marketing, a massive asset to be able to call upon. And these qualities would be reflected in Coca Cola’s marketing metrics, highlighting the strength of the position of the company, and the likely continuation of its steady solidification one of the world’s most recognised global brands. Word Count: 2,877